GUWAHATI
A study published in the Indian Journal of History of Science a few months ago has challenged long-held beliefs about the origins of mineral acids, suggesting that ancient Indian scholars may have understood and used them centuries before similar knowledge appeared in Europe or the Arab world.
For decades, historians believed that Arab alchemists developed mineral acids — such as nitric acid or aqua regia (Latin for ‘royal water’), capable of dissolving metals like gold — after the 9th century Common Era (CE) and later passed on to Europe. Ancient Indian chemistry was thought to rely mainly on mild, organic acids derived from plants and fermented liquids. The research, however, paints a far more sophisticated picture.
Vineet Sharma and Venkatnarayan Ramanathan of the Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems at the Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) are the authors of the study. The latter is also associated with the Department of Chemistry at IIT (BHU).
By closely examining classical Indian texts written before the 8th century CE, including the Arthaśāstra, Suśruta Saṃhitā, and alchemical works such as the Rasārṇava, the authors identified detailed descriptions of chemical processes that would not work without strong mineral acids.
These texts often refer to substances such as kāsīsa (green vitriol), alum, saltpetre, sulphur, and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). In modern chemistry, these ingredients are known to generate powerful acids when heated or mixed under specific conditions.
To test whether these ancient recipes could actually produce acids, the researchers recreated several processes described in the texts using laboratory equipment. They measured acidity using modern pH meters and indicator paper. The results showed that the recreated mixtures consistently produced highly acidic solutions, confirming that mineral acids were being generated in situ or on the spot, rather than as separately isolated chemicals.
China connection
The study also links Indian chemical knowledge to China. Chinese historical records from the 7th century CE describe Indian scholars who possessed mysterious “waters” that could dissolve metals and organic matter instantly — properties strongly associated with mineral acids. The researchers argue that such accounts reflect real chemical knowledge rather than legend, and that ideas likely travelled between India and China through scholars and monks.
The study also questions the narrative that credits the discovery of mineral acids to the Arab alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān, known in Europe as Geber. Several historians have already argued that many texts attributed to Geber were actually written centuries later in Europe. The close similarities between Indian alchemical recipes and later European descriptions of mineral acids raise the possibility that Indian knowledge either predated or influenced these developments.
By combining textual scholarship with experimental chemistry, the researchers argue that ancient Indian science was empirical, practical, and far more advanced than commonly assumed. Although framed in religious, symbolic, or philosophical language, the underlying methods were systematic and reproducible.
The findings call for a broader re-evaluation of global scientific history, particularly the tendency to view ancient non-Western knowledge systems as purely speculative or mystical. Instead, the study shows that ancient Indian scholars engaged in sophisticated chemical experimentation, aligning closely with modern scientific principles.
As debates continue over the dating and authorship of key alchemical texts, the authors stress that further interdisciplinary research — combining history, chemistry, and philology — could reveal even deeper roots of scientific knowledge in the subcontinent.
